WATER  POWER 

IN 

NEW  YORK  STATE 


What  its  Development 
will  mean  for  the  public 


i£x  ICtbrtH 


SEYMOUR  DURST 


When  you  leave,  please  leave  this  book 

Because  it  has  been  said 
"Ever  thing  comes  t'  him  who  waits 

Except  a  loaned  book." 


Avery  Architectural  and  Fine  Arts  Library 
Gift  of  Seymour  B.  Durst  Old  York  Library 


CENTRAL  HUDSON  SYSTEM 
of  Gas  and  Electric  Companies 


50  MARKET  STREET, 


POUGHKEEPSIE,  N.  Y. 


November  20 ,  1926 

WATER  POWER  IN 
NEW  YORK  STATE 

The  enclosed  booklet  entitled  "Water  Power  in  New  York 
State"  gives  information  relating  to  this  important  subject  which 
thoughtful  citizens  may  find  useful  in  forming  their  conclusions 
as  to  the  best  means  of  utilizing  some  three  million  horse  power 
now  going  to  waste  in  this  state. 

There  seems  to  be  no  dissent  from  the  belief  that  unused  but 
available  water  power  should  be  harnessed  and  put  to  work  in 
the  interest  of  the  public.  Coal  supplies  are  not  inexhaustible 
and  should  be  conserved.  Intelligent  utilization  of  water  power 
is  one  means  of  postponing  the  day  when  coal  can  not  be  had. 

Shall  the  state  develop  these  water  powers  or  shall  public 
utilities  be  entrusted  with  the  task? 

This  booklet,  prepared  by  the  Empire  State  Gas  6c  Electric 
Association,  frankly  upholds  the  latter  position.  We  are  pleased 
to  send  you  a  copy  in  the  belief  that  it  will  be  a  contribution  to 
whatever  fund  of  information  you  may  have  on  the  subject. 


WATER  POWER  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE 


WHAT  ITS  DEVELOPMENT  WILL  MEAN  FOR  THE  PUBLIC  , 


OVL 


Niagara  Falls 


WATER  POWER 

IN 

NEW  YORK  STATE 


WHAT  ITS  DEVELOPMENT 
WILL  MEAN  FOR  THE  PUBLIC 


Published  by 

THE  EMPIRE  STATE  GAS  AND  ELECTRIC 
ASSOCIATION 

GRAND  CENTRAL  TERMINAL 
NEW  YORK  CITY 
October,  1926 


m 

Table  of  (Contents 

I.    Resources  Now  Wasted  and  Their  Possibilities   6 

II.    Why  the  Waste  Goes  On  ,   10 

III.  How  the  Waste  May  Be  Ended   13 

IV.  What  Water  Power  Will  Do  In  New  York  State   16 

V.  Rebuilding-  the  St.  Lawrence   22 

VI.  The  Niagara  That  Is,  and  Is  To  Be  27 

VII.  Inland  Streams — Flood  Prevention  and  Power   33 

VIII.  The  Necessity  for  Action  40 


oreword 


Applications  for  licenses  to  develop  large  water  powers  are  be- 
ing considered  by  the  Water  Power  Commission  of  the  State  of 
New  York.  This  book  is  a  statement  by  the  electrical  industry  of 
New  York  State  of  the  facts  in  the  situation  and  the  economic 
considerations  which  make  desirable  a  prompt  and  systematic  util- 
ization of  the  great  natural  resources  now  going  to  waste  in  the 
Empire  State. 

It  is  the  industry's  duty  to  furnish  an  abundant  and  economical 
supply  of  electrical  energy  and  to  have  it  always  ready  in  advance 
of  demands.  The  interests  of  the  public  and  of  the  industry  coin- 
cide in  requiring  the  prompt  beginning  of  comprehensive  develop- 
ment of  the  water  power  in  the  State,  available  but  unused. 

The  electrical  industry,  which  has  already  put  to  work  1,750,000 
horsepower  of  water  power  in  serving  the  people  of  New  York, 
stands  ready  to  harness  this  unused  water  power.  "  Some  of  it, 
where  no  legal  obstacles  prevent,  is  being  developed  now.  Develop- 
ment of  the  bulk  of  it,  however,  must  await  authorization  by  vari- 
ous official  bodies  and  Governments.  If  and  when  such  authoriza- 
tion can  be  obtained,  the  electrical  industry  is  prepared  to  under- 
take the  engineering  and  financing  tasks,  of  unequalled  size  and 
difficulty,  involved  in  the  projects.  It  has  the  plans.  It  has  the 
men  who  can  carry  them  to  success.  It  can  get  the  money — and 
before  it  gets  back  one  cent  in  revenue  it  will  be  required  to  spend 
hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  on  some  of  the  developments. 


I         Resources  Now  Wasted  and  Their 

Possibilities 

IN  New  York  State  there  is  unused  but  available  for  development 
water  power  aggregating-  more  than  three  million  continuous 
horse  power.    This  is  almost  as  much  as  the  present  total  of 
electrical  generating  capacity  in  the  State,  both  water  power  and 
steam. 

These  unused  resources  fall  into  two  natural  divisions — power 
from  the  international  boundary  streams,  Niagara  and  the  St. 
Lawrence;  and  power  from  interior  streams. 

On  the  International  section  of  the  St.  Lawrence  2,400,000  horse- 
power can  be  developed,  half  of  which  would  be  available  for  New 
York  State. 

At  Niagara  1,000,000  horsepower  additional  can  be  developed 
without  injury  to  scenic  beauty. 

From  the  interior  streams  1,000,000  horsepower  additional  can 
be  developed. 

This  three  million  horsepower  does  not  represent  the  total 
power  possibilities  of  the  streams  of  the  State.  It  represents  only 
projects  carefully  studied,  which  can  economically  be  converted 
into  power  and  which  electrical  companies  if  authorized  are  ready 
to  develop  and  put  to  work  as  a  needed  addition  to  the  present 
power  systems  in  the  Empire  State. 

Put  to  work,  this  water  now  flowing  idly  to  the  sea  can  benefit 
mankind  socially  and  economically.  If  New  York  State  is  to  ad- 
vance in  its  industrial  leadership  and  to  maintain  its  progress  un- 
checked, this  water  should  be  pressed  into  service  at  the  earliest 
possible  moment.  Power  requirements  in  the  State,  which  already 
uses  one-sixth  of  the  electricity  produced  in  all  of  the  United  States, 
are  rapidly  increasing.  The  power  supply  for  homes,  farms,  stores 
and  factories  must  ever  be  well  in  advance  of  the  demands  if  in- 
dustrial progress  and  community  development  are  not  to  be  handi- 
capped. 


161 


From  coal  or  water,  or  both,  must  come  the  power  which  vital- 
izes our  daily  life. 

In  using  water  power  to  the  maximum,  two  great  economies  are 
effected — a  saving  of  coal  and  its  by-products  and  a  saving  of  power 
otherwise  wasted  and  lost.  New  York  State  has  the  water.  It 
has  to  import  the  coal. 

There  has  been  for  several  years  a  distinct  downward  trend  in 
rates  charged  for  electricity  in  New  York  State.  Several  elements 
have  contributed  to  this.  About  one-third  of  all  the  electricity 
now  sold  in  the  State  by  utility  companies  is  produced  at  Niagara 
Falls  at  very  low  cost.  While  considerably  more  than  half  the 
electricity  produced  in  the  State  is  steam-generated,  unit  costs  of 
production  have  been  reduced  by  notable  improvements  in  coal 
burning  and  increased  efficiencies  of  large  size  generators.  Inter- 
connection of  electrical  companies  has  effected  economies  of  opera- 
tion and  administration. 

A  large  part  of  the  potential  water  power  in  the  State  can  be 
developed  so  that  the  power  will  cost  less,  at  the  power  plant,  than 
electricity  now  produced  from  coal.  The  three  million  horsepower 
of  the  boundary  and  interior  streams  can  produce  power  equiva- 
lent to  the  electric  energy  produced  by  the  burning  of  twenty  mil- 
lion tons  of  coal  yearly.  If  New  York  State  is  to  continue  mainly 
dependent  on  coal  for  its  supply  of  electrical  energy — and  steam 
generated  power  will  always  have  to  furnish  a  considerable  part  of 
the  electrical  supply  for  the  State — the  time  will  come  when  power 
prices  will  begin  to  rise  because  of  increased  coal  costs.  Develop- 
ment of  the  water  powers  in  the  State  may  permit  the  electrical 
industry  to  continue  the  downward  trend  of  rates  for  a  time.  It 
will,  at  least,  permit  a  continuance  of  the  present  level  of  prices  for 
a  considerable  time  to  come,  and  thus  offer  to  industry  advantages 
equal  to  or  better  than  those  of  any  other  section  of  the  country. 

The  effect  of  development  of  this  water  power  would  be  felt  in 
homes  and  industry  all  over  the  State.  Because  of  this  new  supply 
of  economical  power,  existing  business  might  be  expected  to  ex- 
pand and  new  business  to  locate  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Em- 
pire State.  This  has  always  happened  when  large  new  supplies  of 
low-priced  power  have  reinforced  existing  advantages  of  materials, 
transportation  and  markets.  Such  industrial  expansion  would  in- 
crease the  number  of  workers,  increase  the  production  of  commodi- 


171 


ties,  increase  the  size  of  payrolls,  increase  the  demand  for  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  farms  and  the  merchandise  of  the  stores,  increase  the 
value  of  property  and  the  amount  of  taxable  property. 

Put  to  work,  this  water  power  would  yield  each  year  an  income 
of  many  millions  of  dollars  for  the  State  of  New  York  and  its  com- 
munities. It  would  pay  taxes.  A  large  part  of  it  would  in  addition 
yield  license  fees  to  the  State.  While  the  water  runs  unharnessed, 
not  one  cent  of  this  potential  income  can  be  collected. 

In  the  development  of  any  or  all  of  this  water  power,  no  rights 
or  interest  of  the  State  can  be  surrendered  or  given  away.  Where 
the  State  has  rights  involved,  they  are  fully  protected  by  existing 
laws  which  require  development  companies  to  obtain  leases  and 
make  adequate  payment  for  them.  Before  one  drop  of  the  water 
can  be  harnessed,  engineering  and  financing  plans  must  receive  the 
approval  of  State  officials.  Performance  of  construction  work  and 
expenditure  of  money  must  be  supervised  by  State  officials.  The 
price  at  which  the  power  generated  may  be  sold  to  the  public  will 
be  under  the  jurisdiction  of  State  officials. 


[8] 


II 


Why  The  Waste  Goes  On 


EVELOPMENT  of  the  major  part  of  the  water  powers  now 
unused  has  been  prevented  for  years  by  a  controversy  be- 
tween advocates  of  State  ownership  and  operation  of  public 
utilities  and  advocates  of  private  initiative  and  enterprise. 

In  1920  the  Federal  Government  adopted  a  water  power  act 
affecting  the  development  and  use  of  all  water  powers  within  its 
jurisdiction.  This  act,  approved  by  outstanding"  exponents  of 
sound  conservation  of  natural  resources,  permits  the  licensing  of 
individuals  and  corporations  to  develop  water  powers.  All  licenses 
are  for  a  maximum  term  of  fifty  years,  at  the  end  of  which  the 
Government  may  renew  the  license  or  at  its  option  grant  a  new 
license  to  a  different  licensee,  or  take  over — recapture — the  de- 
velopment, in  either  of  the  two  latter  cases  on  payment  to  the 
licensee  of  his  actual  investment.  License  fees  are  provided  for; 
and  the  licensee  must  submit  to  State  regulation  (or  where  no 
State  agency  exists,  Federal  regulation)  of  rates  for  power  sold, 
standards  of  service  and  issuance  of  securities.  In  issuing  licenses 
the  Commission  is  required  to  give  preference  to  applications  there- 
for by  States  and  Municipalities. 

While  the  State  of  New  York  owns  the  beds  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  Niagara  Rivers  up  to  the  international  boundary,  this  is 
not  a  controlling  ownership  in  power  development,  and  such  owner- 
ship is  subject  to  the  superior  rights  of  the  Federal  Government 
with  respect  to  navigation.  In  addition  the  State  owns  lands  in  the 
Adirondack  Forest  Reserve,  and  on  some  of  those  state-owned  lands 
are  power  sites. 

Advocates  of  State  development  of  water  power  have  contended 
that  the  unused  water  powers  are  so  large  and  important  to  the 
public  that  no  "private  interests"  should  be  permitted  to  handle 
them.  State  development  has  been  held  out  as  offering  advantages 
of  lower  capital  costs,  lower  rates  and  freedom  from  possible  ex- 
ploitation of  users  of  electricity.  Advocates  of  development  by  the 
electrical  industry  have  pointed  out  that  the  State — meaning  the 
Government — was  not  intended  or  designed  to  conduct  any  business 
except  the  business  of  government  itself  and  that  the  development 

f  10] 


and  sale  of  electric  energy  is  a  business,  technical,  complex  and 
fraught  with  risk ;  that  the  State  has  no  facilities  for  undertaking1 
such  business;  that  the  State  would  be  required  to  raise  and  risk 
an  enormous  investment.  Experience  with  government  ownership 
and  operation  of  the  electrical  business  elsewhere  has  proved  that 
the  electrical  industry  in  New  York  is  producing  water  power  at 
lower  cost  and  selling  it,  unit  for  unit  produced,  at  lower  prices 
than  the  government. 

In  1921  the  legislature  of  the  State  of  New  York  finally  declared 
the  policy  of  the  State  regarding  water  power  development  by  pass- 
ing a  bill  modelled  closely  on  the  Federal  act.  Under  this  law 
companies  of  high  technical  and  financial  standing  sought  authoriza- 
tion to  begin  developments  on  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Niagara  rivers. 
Official  action  was  delayed  and  the  controversy  over  the  State's 
policy  was  renewed  by  attempts  to  repeal  the  law  and  substitute  an 
indirect  form  of  State  development  through  the  agency  of  a  public 
corporation,  a  State  agency,  though  not  to  be  permitted  to  operate 
by  use  of  the  State's  credit. 

Development  of  a  considerable  part  of  the  unused  power  in  the 
Adirondacks  is  prevented  by  another  obstacle.  The  Constitution 
requires  that  State  lands  in  the  forest  preserve  shall  forever  be 
held  as  wild  forest  land.  It  permits  not  to  exceed  three  per  cent 
of  their  area  to  be  flooded  for  purposes  of  municipal  water  supply 
or  for  stream  regulation.  In  1923  there  was  submitted  to  the 
voters  of  the  State  for  ratification  a  proposed  amendment  to  the 
Constitution  which  would  have  authorized  the  enactment  of  laws 
providing  for  the  use  of  this  three  per  cent  of  the  forest  preserve 
lands  for  the  development  of  water  power  as  well.  It  would  have 
permitted  building  of  reservoirs,  power  houses  and  transmission 
lines  by  the  State  or  a  lessee  of  the  State  under  State  regulation 
and  supervision  on  a  lease  not  to  exceed  fifty  years,  under  "such 
terms  as  will  best  protect  the  public  interest."    It  was  defeated. 

Until  such  an  amendment  and  laws  to  put  it  into  effect  are 
passed  neither  the  State  itself  nor  any  lessee  of  the  State  may 
develop  the  Adirondack  power  potentialities  where  State  lands  are 
involved. 

The  waste  goes  on  because  what  is  essentially  an  economic 
matter  has  been  thrown  into  the  realm  of  politics.  The  interest 
of  the  people  of  the  State  is  to  have  it  taken  out  of  the  realm  of 


fin 


politics  and  the  unused  waters  put  to  work.  The  State  policy  is  in 
the  statute  books.  It  provides  ample  safeguards  against  exploita- 
tion and  furnishes  protection  of  the  public's  interests  by  the  action 
of  public  officials. 


U21 


Ill        How  The  Waste  May  Be  Ended 


EFORE  the  waste  of  water  power  may  be  stopped,  official  au- 
thorization of  development  projects  must  be  given  in  such 
fashion  as  to  protect  fully  the  rights  of  the  public — both 
those  rights  having  their  basis  in  ownership  and  those  rights  ex- 
pressed in  the  law  which  assures  the  public  safe  and  adequate  elec- 
trical service  at  fair  and  reasonable  rates. 

A  different  set  of  conditions  governs  the  development  of  each 
major  project. 

In  1910  a  treaty  was  negotiated  between  the  United  States  and 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  acting  through  the  British  Government 
concerning  the  waters  of  the  international  boundary  streams — the 
Niagara  and  the  St.  Lawrence.  That  treaty  declared  that  "no 
further  or  other  uses  or  obstructions  or  diversions,  whether  tem- 
porary or  permanent,  of  boundary  waters  on  either  side  of  the  line, 
affecting  the  natural  level  or  flow  of  boundary  waters  on  the  other 
side  of  the  line,  shall  be  made  except  by  authority  of  the  United 
States  or  the  Dominion  of  Canada  within  their  respective  jurisdic- 
tion and  with  the  approval,  as  hereinafter  provided,  of  a  Joint 
Commission  to  be  known  as  the  International  Joint  Commission.,, 

This  Joint  Commission  has  jurisdiction  over  all  cases  involving 
the  use  or  obstruction  of  the  waters.  Equal  and  similar  rights  in 
the  use  of  the  water  is  guaranteed  to  each  of  the  signatories. 

On  the  International  section  of  the  St.  Lawrence  no  power 
development  may  be  made  which  has  not  the  authorization  and 
approval  of  the  State  of  New  York  and  the  Province  of  Ontario; 
and  which  has  not  the  authorization  and  approval  of  the  United 
States  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  finally  approved  by  the  Inter- 
national Joint  Commission.  The  State  of  New  York  and  the  Prov- 
ince of  Ontario  must  act  together  in  exercising  their  rights  to  make 
possible  a  power  development;  no  license,  lease  or  grant  by  either 
of  them  will  be  effective  without  the  concurrence  of  the  other. 
That  means  that  they  must  agree  on  the  details  of  any  plans  for 
construction,  maintenance  and  operation  of  a  power  development 

[131 


project.  Their  concurrent  action  will  not  be  effective  without 
authorization  of  the  United  States  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
with  the  final  approval  of  the  International  Joint  Commission. 

The  Water  Power  Commission  has  jurisdiction  to  represent  the 
State  of  New  York  as  one  party  to  such  an  agreement  with  the 
Province  of  Ontario.  The  Federal  Power  Commission  has  jurisdic- 
tion to  represent  the  United  States  in  making  such  an  agreement 
with  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

The  treaty  of  1910  sanctioned  the  diversion  of  56,000  cubic  feet 
of  water  a  second  from  the  Niagara  River  above  the  Falls  for  power 
production.  This  was  divided  36,000  feet  to  the  Canadian  side  and 
20,000  feet  to  the  American  side.  Approximately  1,200,000  horse- 
power results  from  the  use  of  that  water  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
river. 

America's  share  of  the  water,  having  been  used  once,  is  returned 
to  the  river  just  below  the  Falls.  By  reason  of  the  physical  charac- 
teristics of  the  river,  it  can  be  used  for  power  purposes  a  second 
time,  and  utilized  to  produce  200,000  horsepower.  For  this  project 
authorization  by  the  State  and  by  the  Federal  governments,  through 
the  State  Water  Power  Commission  and  the  Federal  Power  Com- 
mission, will  be  required.  Apparently  concurrent  authorization  by 
the  Canadian  authorities  will  not  be  necessary,  though  approval  by 
the  International  Joint  Commission  would  be. 

A  further  diversion  of  water  from  the  Niagara  River  above  the 
Falls  for  power  purposes,  now  discussed  and  needed  if  growing 
power  demands  are  to  be  met,  would,  however,  require  a  treaty 
amendment  and  possibly  further  action  by  the  four  sets  of  officials, 
and  approval  by  the  International  Joint  Commisssion. 

In  the  Adirondacks,  complete  realization  of  the  power  possi- 
bilities of  various  streams  by  whomever  made  would  require,  first, 
amendment  of  the  State's  constitution  as  was  proposed  in  1923. 
Thereafter  it  would  require  authorization  of  the  individual  develop- 
ment projects  by  the  State  Water  Power  Commission. 

When,  and  how,  this  waste  of  power  shall  be  stopped  depends, 
then,  on  public  opinion  and  action  by  public  officials.  Action  de- 
pends on  determination  to  consider  the  matter  in  the  light  of 
benefits  to  be  realized  by  the  public  from  putting  the  water  to* work. 

I  H] 


IV    What  Water  Power  Will  Do  In  New 


ARGE  industries  are  moving  from  Eastern  States  to  the  South 


where  raw  materials  and  favorable  conditions  of  labor  and  tax- 


ation are  associated  with  abundant  low-priced  power.  New 
England,  alarmed  at  its  loss  of  cotton  spindles,  is  busy  planning  for 
a  progressive  lowering  of  its  power  costs.  The  Empire  State  can 
profit  by  study  of  these  examples.  An  ample  supply  of  low-priced 
power  must  be  continued  to  serve  existing  industries  and  to  attract 
new  ones.  If  scientific  development  of  water  power  resources  on  a 
large  scale  is  undertaken,  New  York  need  fear  no  competition  by 
any  other  State  in  industrial  expansion. 

From  the  day  when  steam  first  began  to  run  machinery,  water 
power  has  been  in  competition  with  steam.  Water  power  is  devel- 
oped and  placed  on  the  market  for  two  reasons. 

Water  power,  first,  is  developed  because  it  can  be  sold  success- 
fully in  competition  with  steam-generated  electricity,  which  means 
at  somewhat  lower  prices.  Second,  it  is  developed  because  every 
horsepower  year  of  hydro  energy  produced  avoids  the  necessity  of 
burning  annually  from  seven  to  ten  tons  of  coal  or  its  equivalent 
in  oil,  gas  or  wood  to  generate  that  amount  of  energy. 

There  is  a  limit  to  the  ability  of  water  power  to  compete  with 
steam-generated  electricity.  It  may  be  unable  to  compete  because 
its  development  would  be  too  costly,  or  because  the  power  site  is 
too  far  from  possible  markets.  The  actual  cost  of  the  electricity 
at  the  power  house  is  not  a  large  item  in  the  total  cost  of  electrical 
service.  With  water  power,  the  average  power-house  cost  of  the 
electric  energy  is  about  one-fifth  of  the  cost  delivered  to  customers 
for  use — that  is,  the  cost  of  transmission,  distribution  and  service 
is  approximately  four  times  the  cost  of  the  power  itself.  The  same 
general  proportion  holds  good  for  steam-generated  electricity,  ex- 
cept the  item  of  transmission.  A  steam  station  can  be  built  any 
place  where  there  is  a  railroad  to  haul  in  coal  and  large  quantities 
of  fresh  or  salt  water  are  available  for  condensing  purposes.  So 
the  transmission  costs  to  the  power  markets  can  be  minimized.  With 
water  power,  the  power  has  to  be  made  where  Nature  creates  it, 


York  State 


116  1 


Hell  Gate  Station,  which  is  now  supplying  about  a  billion 
kilowatt-hours  of  energy  each  year. 

and  if  that  is  too  far  from  the  possible  markets,  it  may  be  cheaper 
to  use  steam-generated  power.  In  that  case  a  particular  power 
site  will  go  undeveloped  or  will  be  developed  only  when  its  power 
can  be  used  economically  as  part  of  a  power  reservoir  from  vari- 
ous sources. 

The  electricity  supplied  to  the  people  of  New  York  State,  outside 
of  New  York  City,  is  furnished  largely  by  a  great  power  system, 
the  accomplishment  of  recent  years.  This  is  the  result  of  co- 
operative operation  of  many  companies  of  independent  ownership. 
Plants  producing  electric  energy  from  steam  and  hydroelectric 
plants  are  interconnected  by  transmission  lines  so  that  the  energy 
produced  forms  a  reservoir  from  which  it  is  drawn  for  distribution 
to  homes  and  factories  in  hundreds  of  communities  according  to  the 
local  needs.  In  New  York  City  there  is  a  local  system  formed  by 
the  interconnection  of  the  generating  plants  of  the  various  electrical 
companies,  which  is  not  yet  connected  with  the  State  system. 

This  interconnection  has  saved  many  millions  of  dollars  in 
amount  of  capital  investment,  amount  of  reserve  generating  capac- 
ity and  total  of  operating  expenses  compared  with  what  would 
otherwise  have  been  required;  and  the  people  of  the  State  have 
shared  the  benefits  of  these  economies.  In  its  annual  report  for 
1925,  the  Public  Service  Commisssion  of  the  State  of  New  York 
said: 

"Consolidations  and  extensions  of  electric  plants  have  continued 
throughout  the  past  year  and  have  invariably  been  followed  by  an 

U71 


improved  character  of  service  and  quite  frequently  by  immediate 
reductions  in  rates  or  readjustments  which  have  operated  to  the 
benefit  of  the  public.  During  the  past  year  54  corporations  have 
filed  schedules  voluntarily  reducing-  the  rates  for  electricity.  In 
the  majority  of  cases  the  reductions  have  been  substantial.  Many 
of  them  have  been  made  possible  by  consolidation  and  increased 
efficiency  therefrom,  others  have  resulted  from  the  improvements 
in  the  art  which  have  increased  the  use  of  electricity,  thereby  giving 
a  greater  revenue  from  the  same  capital  investment,  or  have  de- 
creased the  cost  of  operation." 

In  1925  the  people  of  New  York  State  used  in  round  numbers 
ten  billion  kilowatt-hours  of  electricity,  which  was  one-sixth  the 
consumption  of  the  entire-  country.  At  the  present  rate  of  increase, 
the  use  in  1930  may  be  estimated  conservatively  to  be  well  over 
16  billion  kilowatt-hours,  and  in  1935  about  26  billion  kilowatt- 
hours.  In  all  probability  it  will  reach  30  billion  kilowatt-hours  by 
that  date. 


Hudson  Avenue  Station  in  Brooklyn, 
one  of  the  newest  of  the  great  coal-burning  plants. 


f  18! 


This  huge  quantity  of  electric  energy  must  be  produced,  because 
New  York  State  will  not  be  permitted  to  lose  its  position  of  pre- 
eminence in  industry.  It  will  be  produced,  either  from  steam, 
which  means  coal  and  oil,  or  from  water  power.  The  more  there  is 
produced  from  water  power,  the  greater  will  be  the  conservation 
of  coal.  But  if  the  needs  of  1930  and  1935  are  to  be  met  without 
a  notable  increase  in  coal  burning  by  the  electrical  industry  over 
the  present  consumption,  there  must  be  as  soon  as  possible  the 
beginning  of  comprehensive  and  scientific  development  of  those 
water  powers  not  now  working  for  the  public. 

A  water  power  plant  cannot  be  built  over  night,  even  one  com- 
paratively small  in  the  general  plan  of  power  development.  If  all 
official  authorization  necessary  were  obtained  so  construction  work 
could  begin  tomorrow  on  what  seems  the  most  immediate  project 
at  Niagara,  current  could  not  be  put  on  the  wires  for  three  years — 
perhaps  a  little  better,  if  construction  records  were  broken.  When 
construction  begins  on  the  St.  Lawrence  project,  five  years*  time 
will  be  required  before  power  can  be  delivered. 

By  every  requirement  of  efficiency  and  economy,  these  unused 
water  powers,  if  and  when  developed,  must  become  a  part  of  the 
interconnected  system  in  the  State. 

Projects  of  the  magnitude  of  those  contemplated  at  Niagara  and 
on  the  St.  Lawrence  require  the  expenditure  of  such  huge  sums 
of  money  that  unless  a  maximum  production  of  power  can  be 
obtained  and  all  that  power  can  be  used  all  the  time,  the  cost  would 
be  too  great  to  warrant  development.  But  as  a  part  of  the  great 
interconnected  system,  these  developments  could  be  made  and 
utilized  economically  and  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  public. 
The  great  volume  of  Niagara  and  St.  Lawrence  power  would  be 
"firm  power."  That  is,  it  would  be  produced  with  very  slight 
variations  in  quantity  hour  after  hour,  day  after  day,  year  in,  year 
out,  because  there  is  so  little  variation  in  the  stream  flow.  Its 
natural,  economic  use,  therefore,  is  to  supply  the  steady  demands 
for  power  which  every  utility  company  has  to  meet.  But  besides 
these  steady  demands  technically  known  as  "base  loads,"  utility 
companies  have  to  meet  irregular  or  excess  demands  known  as 
"peak  loads."  These  come  at  various  times,  according  to  the  com- 
munity's conditions  of  working  and  living,  and  the  peak  loads  of 

C  191 


different  cities  and  sections  of  the  State  do  not  coincide  in  time. 
Usually  the  maximum  power  demands  are  fifty  per  cent  higher  than 
the  average  demand.  Without  interconnection,  by  which  power 
sources  take  advantage  of  the  diversity  in  time  of  peak  loads,  each 
local  plant  would  have  to  maintain  generating  capacity  sufficient  to 
meet  its  peak,  about  fifty  per  cent  of  which  would  be  idle  most  of 
the  time.  This  obviously  would  increase  greatly  the  unit  cost  of 
the  electric  power  produced. 

If  the  great  St.  Lawrence  project  were  to  be  operated  as  an 
isolated  plant  (by  the  State  or  any  other  owner)  instead  of  as  a 
part  of  the  present  interconnected  system,  it  would  prove  needlessly 
expensive  as  a  power  producer.  It  would  have  to  waste  fifty  per 
cent  of  its  power  all  the  time,  or  have  fifty  per  cent  of  its  generating 
capacity  idle  most  of  the  time.  But  Niagara  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
operating  full-time  and  balanced  by  the  generating  capacity  (both 
steam  and  hydro)  elsewhere  in  the  State-wide  power  system,  can 
be  used  economically  and  make  their  low-cost  power  widely  available. 

The  electrical  industry's  broad  plan  of  water  power  development 
calls  for  the  utilization  of  Niagara  and  St.  Lawrence  power  for  base 
load  and  of  the  power  from  interior  streams  for  peak  loads.  Inland 
streams  are  seasonal  in  flow,  with  high  water  in  Spring  and  low 
water  in  Summer  and  Fall.  Developments  which  could  take  full 
advantage  of  the  Spring  high  water  would  be  too  large — therefore 
too  expensive — for  periods  of  low  water.  To  remedy  this  condition, 
building  of  storage  reservoirs  for  stream  flow  regulation  is  neces- 
sary, and  this  has  been  undertaken  on  certain  rivers  also  in  order 
to  prevent  disastrous  floods.  The  place  of  such  rivers  in  power 
production  is  valuable,  even  though  they  cannot  be  depended  on 
for  base  power.  They  are  put  to  work  when  needed.  When  they 
are  not  working,  the  storage  reservoirs  fill  up  again.  Through  such 
intermittent  use,  fullest  value  is  obtained  from  them. 

Niagara  and  St.  Lawrence  power  will  be  produced  to  supply  the 
needs  of  industry  and  commerce.  It  will  run  mills  and  factories, 
quarries,  brickyards,  hotels,  stores  and  office  buildings  and  other 
establishments  having  large  power  requirements  fairly  stable  in 
their  hours  and  conditions  of  use  of  the  power.  It  will  furnish  the 
motive  power  for  city  and  interurban  transit  systems.  It  will  be 
available  for  electrification  of  railroads  now  using  steam,  and  its 
availability  will  undoubtedly  be  an  element  in  hastening  the  gen- 
eral electrification  of  railroad  mileage  in  this  State.    Some  of  the 


120  1 


St.  Lawrence  power  may  ultimately  find  its  way  to  New  York  City, 
though  it  may  never  displace  steam  power  as  the  main  source  of 
electricity  in  the  metropolis.  Some  of  the  Niagara  and  St.  Law- 
rence power  will  be  used  on  the  farms  and  in  farm  houses  around 
the  State,  hastening  the  time  when  electricity  will  do  their  work 
wherever  it  can  be  used  economically. 


High  Falls  power  plant,  on  Beaver  River. 


{211 


V  Rebuilding  the  St*  Lawrence 


HE  project  for  development  of  the  St.  Lawrence  contemplates 
what  amounts  to  a  reconstruction  of  that  great  river.  It  has 
been  described  as  "building  a  second  Niagara  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence." It  is,  in  fact,  the  first  step  in  a  vision  of  a  St.  Lawrence 
rebuilt  for  the  two  co-ordinated  purposes  of  power  production  and 
improved  navigation,  neither  interfering  with  the  other.  It  involves 
engineering  problems  and  tasks  of  a  magnitude  heretofore  never 
undertaken  in  work  of  this  nature.  Carrying  it  out  will  demand 
technical  and  financial  resources  of  the  highest  order. 

The  Great  Lakes,  enormous  storage  reservoirs  constructed  by 
Nature,  have  an  area  of  90,000  square  miles,  into  which  is  gathered 
the  rainfall  over  a  territory  of  200,000  square  miles.  On  its  way 
to  the  sea  this  water  has  been  partially  harnessed  at  Niagara. 
Some  of  it  has  again  been  put  to  work  at  Massena  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence, but  for  power  purposes  the  flood  of  mighty  waters  is  still 
available  at  other  sites  as  it  has  been  during  the  centuries.  From 
its  head  down  to  Montreal  the  river  has  a  drop  of  220  feet,  of 
which  200  feet  are  capable  of  development  for  power.  On  the  St. 
Lawrence  the  entire  flow  of  water  may  be  utilized,  while  this  may 
never  be  at  Niagara,  because  diversion  of  all  the  water  for  power 
would  wipe  out  one  of  the  scenic  wonders  of  the  world. 

Completely  developed,  the  St.  Lawrence  is  estimated  to  be  able 
to  yield  5,400,000  horsepower,  of  which  2,400,000  would  come  from 
the  international  section  of  the  stream  and  the  remainder  from 
that  part  which  flows  wholly  through  Canadian  territory. 

Three  companies  are  now  seeking  the  necessary  authority  to 
make  this  development — the  New  York  and  Ontario  Power  Com- 
pany, the  American  Super  Power  Corporation  and  the  Frontier 
Corporation.  The  latter  company  is  owned  by  the  General  Electric 
Company,  the  Aluminum  Company  of  America  and  the  E.  I.  Du 
Pont  de  Nemours  Company  and  has  already  made  a  preliminary 
investment  in  the  St.  Lawrence  project  of  approximately  $7,000,000. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  total  cost  of  developing  the  international 
section  of  the  river  will  be  approximately  $240,000,000.  The  Com- 
pany securing  official  authorization  necessary  will  have  the  task  of 
raising  its  share  of  the  money  and  the  greater  task  of  assuring 


122  1 


123  1 


the  distribution  of  the  1,200,000  horsepower  credited  to  the  United 
States.  It  will  have  to  sell  this  power  before  it  can  begin  to  receive 
any  revenue  on  the  investment. 

Forty-two  miles  east  of  Ogdensburg  lie  Long  Sault  Rapids,  an 
unnavigable  stretch  of  seething,  boiling  waters,  around  which  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  river  is  a  canal  for  navigation.  One  of  the 
plans  contemplated  by  the  Frontier  Corporation  provides  for  a 
power  plant  in  the  stream  at  Barnhart  Island.  Across  the  river  at 
the  foot  of  the  Island  it  is  planned  to  build  a  dam  1,930  feet  long 
and  130  feet  from  base  to  crest.  Running  upstream,  the  wings  of 
this  dam  would  support  two  power  houses,  each  taking  in  water  to 
be  converted  through  turbo-generators  into  1,200,000  horsepower 
of  energy.  In  the  middle  of  the  dam  would  be  the  gates  to  control 
the  level  of  the  great  pool  of  water  which  would  be  formed,  forty 
miles  long,  giving  an  83  foot  head  for  power  use,  and  for  the 
handling  of  the  ice-floes  which  a  bitter  Northern  Winter  creates. 

While  this  enterprise  unquestionably  represents  a  great  finan- 
cial undertaking  the  projectors  feel  confident  that  their  experience 
and  resources,  financial  and  technical,  will  enable  them  to  win 
success.  It  is  expected  that  the  cost  of  power  developed  on  the 
international  section  of  the  St.  Lawrence  will  be  comparable  with 
the  present  cost  of  power  at  Niagara  Falls.  On  that  basis  power 
may  be  sold  to  transmission  or  distributing  companies  at  compara- 
tively low  rates.  The  prices  charged  by  the  distributing  companies 
will  naturally  vary  according  to  the  distances  of  the  points  of  use 
from  the  source  of  power  and  the  distribution  expense  incurred. 
The  ever  increasing  demand  for  Niagara  power  indicates  that  St. 
Lawrence  power  will  not  fail  to  find  a  ready  sale  when  distributing 
companies  are  able  to  furnish  it  to  their  customers. 

The  physical  difficulties  of  this  construction  project  are  enor- 
mous. Cofferdams  of  a  size  yet  unattempted  will  have  to  be  built 
on  the  river-bed  against  a  flow  of  water  more  than  five  times  the 
amount  hitherto  conquered  in  such  work.  There  will  be  no  periods 
of  low  water  in  which  to  work — the  flow  of  the  St.  Lawrence  varies 
so  little  that  there  will  be  no  respite  for  the  engineers  and  the  con- 
struction gangs.  In  Spring  there  will  be  the  ice  hazard  to  encounter. 
The  Northern  Winter  creates  great  ice-fields  which,  breaking  up 
with  warmer  weather,  rush  down  the  river  current  at  a  rate  of 
more  than  10,000  tons  a  minute.  That  is  the  equivalent  of  a  train- 
load  every  fifteen  seconds.  At  least  four  times  during  the  construc- 
tion period  this  must  be  met  and  overcome.   And  each  year  there- 


1241 


Winter  ice  jam  in  the  St.  Lawrence  where  the  proposed 
dam  is  to  be  built. 


after,  during  operation  of  the  power  plants,  it  must  be  met,  and 
the  ice  so  handled  that  it  will  be  kept  away  from  the  intakes  which 
conduct  the  water  to  the  great  turbines. 

The  construction  work  can  be  completed  and  the  plants  ready 
to  produce  electricity  in  five  years  from  the  beginning  of  work. 
Construction  camps — which  will  be  cities  in  themselves — will  have 
to  be  built  on  each  side  of  the  river,  with  sleeping  accommodations, 
mess  halls,  offices,  hospitals,  recreation  centers.  Special  railroad 
connections  to  carry  the  construction  material  will  have  to  be  run 
in  to  the  location. 

While  the  building  of  the  great  dam  is  going  on,  another  gigantic 
piece  of  construction  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  the  electrical 
industry  will  be  undertaken  in  New  York  State.  The  electrical 
energy  produced  from  the  waters  of  the  river  will  be  as  valueless 
to  humanity  as  the  rushing  waters  themselves  until  it  can  be  carried 
where  it  can  work.  There  are  no  factories  and  few  houses  near 
the  site  of  the  dam,  and  it  is  unlikely  that  any  great  industrial 
community  will  grow  up  there  such  as  has  come  into  being  at 
Niagara  Falls.  The  country  round  about  is  sparsely  settled  and 
labor  would  have  to  be  imported.  Moreover,  existing  railroad 
facilities  are  rather  limited. 

So  the  power  will  have  to  be  sent  to  the  places  where  labor  is, 
where  factories  may  be  enlarged  and  new  ones  built  and  where 
transportation  facilities  exist  to  handle  their  output.  To  carry  the 
power  to  the  places  where  it  can  go  to  work,  an  enormous  high- 


125! 


voltage  transmission  system  will  have  to  be  built  and  connected 
to  the  present  system  whose  lines  make  a  network  over  New  York 
State  and  its  neighbors  on  the  East,  West  and  South.  Plans  have 
been  made  for  such  a  system  reaching  from  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
the  doorway  of  New  York  City — the  largest  high-voltage  trans- 
mission system  yet  projected.  Its  connections  will  reach  out  East 
and  West,  so  that  the  power  from  the  St.  Lawrence  will  mingle  with 
the  power  from  Niagara  and,  added  to  that  from  the  Adirondacks 
and  from  steam  stations  in  New  York  and  adjoining  States,  will 
foron  the  greatest  power  reservoir  on  the  American  continent. 

Three  north-and-south  units  in  this  transmission  system  are 
planned,  over  rights  of  way- 50  or  75  miles  apart,  to  carry  the  energy 
at  220,000  volts.  The  cost  of  this  transmission  system  is  estimated 
at  just  under  $100,000,000  and  does  not  include  the  cost  of  entry 
into  New  York  City. 

From  the  standpoint  of  economy  and  service  it  is  essential  that 
all  generation,  transmission  and  distribution  of  power  should  be* 
co-ordinated  to  the  maximum  degree.  In  order  to  utilize  base  water 
power  efficiently,  to  secure  the  advantages  of  diversity  of  loads  in 
various  communities  and  to  utilize  existing  steam  stations  for 
maximum  economy,  it  is  essential  that  the  supply  and  distribution 
of  power  should  be  under  a  co-ordinated  directing  force.  Such  con- 
trol of  operations  would  effect  a  saving  in  operating  costs  and 
invested  capital  aggregating  many  millions  of  dollars  annually.  In 
addition,  the  successful  sale  of  power,  its  introduction  into  estab- 
lished industries  and  its  application  to  new  industries  can  be  effec- 
tively accomplished  only  under  conditions  of  flexibility  and  adapta- 
bility which  are  possible  where  the  control  and  direction  of  the 
generation,  transmission  and  distribution  of  the  electric  energy 
are  co-ordinated  as  an  operating  and  business  entity,  conditions 
impracticable  of  attainment  where  there  is  a  divergency  of  interest 
between  two  or  more  of  these  elements  of  the  service. 


1261 


VI     The  Niagara  That  Is,  and  Is  To  Be 


HE  story  of  Niagara  is  an  account  of  what  is,  and  what  is  to 
be.  From  Niagara  the  people  of  New  York  State  already  get 
more  hydroelectric  energy  than  from  all  other  water  powers 
developed  in  the  State.  From  this  same  source  the  territory  served 
gets  the  lowest  priced  electric  service  in  the  State.  It  wants  more, 
and  could  use  more  to  advantage. 

Niagara  Falls  is  unique,  both  as  a  wonder  of  Nature  and  as  a 
producer  of  power.  Because  it  is  so  marvellous  a  spectacle  it  is 
the  heritage  of  the  world,  not  alone  of  the  two  countries  whose 
territory  it  divides.  For  that  reason  its  full  potentialities  for 
power  production  will  never  be  realized.  To  make  hydroelectricity 
with  the  greatest  efficiency  water  must  be  diverted  from  the 
Niagara  River  above  the  Falls  and  run  through  power-house  tur- 
bines. Complete  utilization  of  the  water  for  power  would  leave 
the  Falls  dry,  which  is  not  even  considered.  It  would  also  leave  no 
means  of  handling  the  great  quantities  of  ice  which  moves  out  of 
Lake  Erie  and  down  the  river  in  Spring.  Nevertheless,  more  power 
could  be  produced  from  Niagara's  waters,  and  eventually,  undoubt- 
edly, will  be,  in  accordance  with  plans  which  make  full  provision  for 
an  improvement  of  Niagara's  scenic  beauty,  and  provision  for  carry- 
ing off  the  ice,  and  thus  increase  the  cataract's  practical  service  to 
humankind. 

The  only  question  is  when  official  permission  to  bring  all  this 
about  will  be  granted. 

The  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes  pour  down  the  Niagara  River  at 
the  rate  of  somewhat  more  than  200,000  cubic  feet  a  second,  average 
flow  year  in  and  year  out.  There  are  two  cataracts,  divided  by 
Goat  Island,  the  American  Falls  with  a  crestline  of  1,000  feet  and  a 
drop  of  167  feet,  and  the  Canadian  or  Horseshoe  Falls  with  a  crest- 
line  of  3,000  feet  and  a  drop  of  162  feet.  Six  per  cent  of  the  water 
passing  over  the  Falls  flows  over  the  American  cataract,  ninety- 
four  per  cent  over  the  Horseshoe  Falls. 

From  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  the  Niagara  River  falls  338 
feet.   In  one  mile  of  its  course,  through  the  upper  rapids  and  over 


1271 


1281 


the  Falls  there  is  a  drop  of  220  feet,  and  in  the  lower  rapids  there 
is  a  further  drop  of  94  feet,  making  a  total  drop  in  five  miles  of 
314  feet.  If  all  this  fall  could  be  utilized,  with  the  full  flow  of  the> 
river,  there  would  result  around  six  million  horsepower. 

Power  production  at  present  is  limited  by  the  amount  of  water 
which  may  be  diverted  above  the  Falls  under  treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  That  treaty,  promulgated  in 
1910,  allows  a  total  diversion  for  power  amounting  to  56,000  cubic 
feet  of  water  a  second,  20,000  cubic  feet  of  which  is  allotted  to  the 
American  side  and  36,000  to  the  Canadian. 

Until  1917,  diversion  on  the  American  side  was  limited  to  15,600 
cubic  feet  a  second  under  act  of  Congress,  but  when  the  World 
War  came  with  its  tremendous  demands  on  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments of  every  sort,  the  Government  called  for  plans  for  the 
prompt  development  of  the  remaining  4,400  cubic  feet  of  water 
which  might  be  used  under  the  treaty.  The  result  was  a  consolida- 
tion in  1918  of  the  power  development  interests  on  the  American 
side  under  the  name  of  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company,  the 
construction  of  a  new  power  house  and  the  speedy  development  of 
100,000  horsepower. 

This  company  is  now  using,  under  license  of  the  Federal  Power 
Commission,  all  the  water  except  275  cubic  feet  a  second,  which 
may  be  diverted  on  the  American  side.  From  this  water  it  pro- 
duced in  1925  a  total  of  2,583,572,610  kilowatt-hours  of  hydro- 
electric energy  which  was  distributed  in  sixteen  counties  in  Western 
and  Central  New  York,  extending  to  Syracuse  on  the  east  and  to 
Jamestown  on  the  west.  The  transmission  lines  which  carry  this 
power  are  interconnected  with  the  systems  in  Pennsylvania  so 
there  may  be  an  interchanged  power  from  Niagara  for  power  from 
the  coal  fields  when  necessary.  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 
has  installed  generating  capacity  on  the  American  side  totalling 
557,500  horsepower,  of  which  105,000  horsepower  is  reserve  ca- 
pacity. 

Two  possibilities  exist  for  additional  power  production  at  Niag- 
ara. One  is  to  obtain  official  permission  for  a  further  diversion 
of  water  above  the  Falls.  The  other  is  to  make  a  second  stage 
development  to  use  water  already  used  by  the  existing  power  plants 
and  returned  to  the  river  below  the  Falls,  under  the  present  Inter- 


I29J 


Building  the  pressure  tunnel  which  carries  Niagara's  waters 
to  giant  turbines. 

national  Treaty.  Application  for  a  license  for  this  second  stage 
development  has  been  made  to  the  State  Water  Power  Commission 
by  the  Lower  Niagara  River  Power  and  Water  Supply  Company, 
and  is  now  pending. 

This  project  contemplates  the  building  of  an  intake  at  the  foot 
of  the  Maid  of  the  Mist  Pool,  just  above  the  Michigan  Central 
Bridge,  carrying  the  water  underground  nearly  three  miles  through 
two  pressure  tunnels,  each  35  feet  in  diameter,  and  utilizing  it 
at  a  power  house  at  the  foot  of  the  lower  rapids.  These  tunnels 
would  follow,  approximately,  the  course  of  the  New  York  Central 
Railroad  tracks  around  the  lower  rapids.  They  would  utilize  the 
94-foot  drop  of  these  rapids.  The  water  would  produce  200,000 
horsepower. 

It  is  estimated  that  this  project  would  cost  about  $40,000,000. 
The  company  already  owns  the  property  necessary  for  the  intake 


f  30  1 


and  the  power  house,  and  it  is  prepared  to  go  ahead  with  the  work 
as  soon  as  the  necessary  official  permission  is  granted.  The  tunnels 
would  be  built  one  at  a  time,  and  a  part  of  the  total  output  of  power 
contemplated  could  be  on  the  wires  in  three  years,  or  perhaps  even 
less  time,  while  construction  work  on  the  second  tunnel  was  in 
progress. 

The  other  possibility  for  further  power  production  at  Niagara 
contemplates  negotiation  of  a  treaty  giving  permission  for  further 
diversion  of  water  above  the  Falls,  and  is  part  of  a  project 
to  stop  the  suicide  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  which  is  now  taking 
place.  Because  of  the  action  which  must  be  taken  by  the  govern- 
ments concerned  before  final  authorization  for  development  is  given, 
this  development  seems  more  remote  than  the  second  stage  project. 

The  water  which  pours  over  the  Horseshoe  Falls  is  eating  away 
the  middle  of  the  rocky  rim  of  the  cataract  at  the  rate  of  about 
seven  feet  a  year.  Year  by  year  the  Horseshoe  is  being  converted 
by  this  erosion  into  a  V-shaped  trough  through  which  the  greater 
part  of  the  water  passing  over  the  Falls  is  discharged.  Thus  the 
crest  of  the  Falls  is  being  made  longer  and  more  irregular  and  the 
arms  of  the  Horseshoe  are  being  left  dry  in  spots,  and  the  tremen- 
dous rush  of  water  through  the  growing  trough  in  the  middle  of 
the  Horseshoe  progressively  lessens  the  beauty  of  the  Falls.  This 
situation  has  been  studied  for  a  long  time  by  various  official  bodies 
and  plans  for  remedial  works  have  been  proposed.  These  include 
two  main  points:  the  building  of  submerged  weirs  or  artificial 
islands  in  the  river  channel  above  the  Falls,  to  deflect  some  of  the 
water  from  the  trough  in  the  middle  of  the  Horseshoe  to  the  arms, 
now  bare  in  spots,  and  a  reduction  of  the  flow  over  the  Horseshoe. 
Engineers  who  have  studied  the  matter  say  that  the  two  items,  in 
combination,  will  restore  to  the  Horseshoe  its  beauty  of  former 
times,  and  incidentally  will  make  available  a  considerable  additional 
quantity  of  water  which  may  be  used  for  power  production. 

It  is  estimated  that  100,000  cubic  feet  a  second  of  the  river's 
flow  could  be  diverted  above  the  Falls,  leaving  ample  volume,  with 
the  reconstruction  suggested,  for  handling  the  ice-flow  in  Spring 
and  for  beauty.  The  engineers  point  out  that  the  American  Falls, 
over  which  only  six  per  cent  of  the  water  passes,  evenly  spread 
because  of  the  numerous  small  islands  in  the  channel  above  the 
Falls,  are  more  beautiful  than  the  Horseshoe  with  its  great  quantity 
of  water,  irregularly  distributed,  eating  away  the  rim  of  the  cataract 


1311 


9 


and  creating  a  mass  of  spray  which  sometimes  too  greatly  obscures 
the  view  of  the  Falls. 

The  diversion  of  100,000  cubic  feet  of  water  each  second  above 
the  Falls  would  make  available  for  power  production  44,000  cubic 
feet  a  second  in  addition  to  that  now  used.  How  that  would  be 
divided  between  the  American  and  Canadian  sides  of  the  river 
would  depend*  on  the  treaty  which  would  sanction  such  additional 
diversion  and  authorize  the  reconstruction  work  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  Horseshoe.  If  it  were  evenly  divided,  675,000  horse- 
power more  could  be  generated  on  the  American  side. 

Plans  have  been  prepared  for  this  over  all  development  if 
and  when  official  permission  is  granted.  An  intake  would  be  built 
in  the  upper  river  and  two  huge  pressure  tunnels  would  convey  the 
water  under  the  city  of  Niagara  Falls  and  adjacent  town  of  Lewis- 
ton  about  five  miles  to  a  power  house  built  at  the  foot  of  the  lower 
rapids  directly  adjoining  the  power  house  proposed  for  the  second 
stage  project.  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company  now  owns  or  has 
rights  for  the  use  of  all  the  property  necessary  for  this  route.  Such 
development  would  utilize  the  full  314-feet  drop  of  the  river  from 
the  upper  rapids  to  the  foot  of  the  lower  rapids.  It  would  cost,  it 
is  estimated,  $60,000,000,  which  is  about  half  the  sum,  for  each 
horsepower  produced,  which  the  contemplated  second  stage  develop- 
ment would  cost.  From  the  engineering  standpoint,  therefore,  it 
is  more  desirable  than  the  latter,  though  neither  would  interfere 
with  the  other. 

To  make  possible  this  "overall"  development,  there  would  be 
necessary  an  amendment  of  the  treaty  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  for  the  additional  diversion  of  water  from  the 
Niagara  River,  and  an  agreement  on  the  remedial  works  which  are 
regarded  as  part  of  the  general  plan.  Beyond  that,  licenses  would 
have  to  be  obtained  authorizing  the  use  of  the  water  by  the  power 
company.  It  is  estimated  that  construction  work  for  the  full  utiliza- 
tion of  22,000  cubic  feet  of  water  a  second  in  this  overall  develop- 
ment could  be  completed  in  five  years  from  the  time  it  was 
authorized. 


132  1 


VII      Inland  Streams — Flood  Prevention 

and  Power 

JN  addition  to  the  water  power  now  developed  by  the  electrical 
utilities  and  manufacturing  companies,  there  are  potential  water 
powers  on  the  interior  streams  of  the  State — the  Hudson,  the 
Genesee,  the  Delaware,  and  the  Black,  Raquette,  Grasse,  Salmon, 
Oswegatchie  and  others — shown  by  various  surveys  to  be  capable 
of  producing  approximately  1,000,000  horsepower  if  fully  and 
scientifically  developed. 

Development  up  to  date  has  been  almost  entirely  by  private 
interests  owning  power  sites  and  riparian  rights.  Complete  develop- 
ment of  water  powers  on  the  interior  streams  depends  on  the  build- 
ing of  storage  reservoirs.  They  are  all  streams  of  seasonal  flow, 
with  disastrous  floods  on  many  of  them  in  Spring,  and  with  low 
water  on  all  of  them  in  Summer.  Spring  flood  waters  could  be 
impounded  in  storage  reservoirs  and  released  in  time  of  low  water 
with  benefit  on  two  counts :  flood  damage  would  be  done  away  with, 
and  power  production  would  be  increased,  both  by  a  regulation  of 
water  flow  at  existing  power  plants,  and  by  the  creation  of  power 
at  new  sites.  More  than  fifty  such  storage  reservoirs  are  needed, 
which  would  make  possible  the  production  of  power  at  more  than 
100  modern  plants  utilizing  the  water  with  greatest  efficiency. 

Building  of  these  reservoirs  in  the  Adirondacks  is  prevented  by 
the  constitutional  provision  against  the  flooding  of  forest  lands. 
The  Constitution  permits  the  building  of  reservoirs  on  not  to  exceed 
three  per  cent  of  the  forest  preserve  lands  for  municipal  water 
supply  and  for  the  regulation  of  streams.  Under  laws  enacted 
according  to  this  provision,  two  River  Regulating  Districts  have 
been  established — the  Black  River  Regulating  District  and  the 
Hudson  River  Regulating  District.  Reservoirs  have  been  built 
which  regulate  the  floods  of  the  Black  River  and  its  tributary,  the 
Beaver,  and  have  considerably  increased  power  production.  Under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Hudson  River  Regulating  District,  work  is 
being  done  on  the  great  Sacandaga  Reservoir  which  will  largely  do 
away  with  the  floods  which  do  so  much  damage  in  Albany  and 
neighboring  communities,  and  will  greatly  increase  the  power  value 
of  the  lower  Hudson. 

133  1 


These  River  Regulating  Districts  are  State  agencies.  The  reser- 
voirs are  paid  for  by  assessments  levied  against  property  and 
municipalities  benefited  by  their  construction  according  to  the  pro- 
portion of  benefit  resulting.  The  increased  value  of  power  rights 
below  the  reservoirs  carries  the  bulk  of  the  payments.  The  direct 
beneficiaries  pay  the  entire  cost.  Neither  the  public  treasury  nor 
the  taxpayer  at  large  is  called  on  for  a  dollar  of  the  cost. 

Of  all  the  interior  streams  the  Hudson  has  the  greatest  power 
possibilities.  Power  development  on  its  upper  reaches,  however, 
is  estopped  because  use  of  State  lands  is  involved.  The  Sacandaga 
project  on  the  lower  reaches,  being  carried  out  by  the  Hudson  River 
Regulating  District,  will  cost  about  nine  million  dollars  for  the 
reservoir  alone,  with  a  further  expenditure  of  thirty  million  dol- 
lars for  power  plants  and  generating  machinery.    It  will  produce 


Trenton  Falls  power  plant,  near  Utica. 


1341 


120,000  horsepower.  A  huge  dam  is  to  be  built  at  Conklingville  on 
the  Sacandaga  River  just  above  its  junction  with  the  Hudson,  which 
will  create  a  lake  22  miles  long,  containing  30,000,000,000  cubic  feet 
of  water.  The  reservoir  will  be  the  third  largest  in  the  country. 
The  stored  waters,  released,  will  increase  the  river's  minimum  flow 
from  700  cubic  feet  a  second  to  3,000  cubic  feet  a  second.  Three 
new  power  pants  are  to  be  built  to  utilize  the  water,  two  others 
will  be  reconstructed  and  additional  generating  capacity  will  be 
installed  in  fifteen  more. 

The  Genesee  in  Western  New  York,  one  of  the  worst  flood 
streams  in  the  State,  has  large  power  possibilities,  now  partially 
utilized  at  Rochester.  It  is  estimated  that  the  scientific  develop- 
ment of  the  river  with  storage  would  produce  approximately  100,000 
horsepower.  This,  however,  is  prevented  by  the  deed  of  gift  which 
transferred  the  beautiful  Letchworth  Park,  with  its  three  falls  near 
Portage,  to  the  State. 

Incomplete  development  of  the  Genesee  by  the  building  of  dams 
and  storage  reservoirs  outside  the  Park  is  possible.  Work  is  now 
in  progress  on  a  project  at  Caneadea,  sixty  miles  from  Rochester, 
which  will  permit  a  considerable  degree  of  stream  regulation  and 
flood  control.  It  is  probable  that  completion  of  this  undertaking 
will  be  followed  by  the  building  of  a  dam  near  Mt.  Morris,  below 
the  Park,  creating  an  artificial  lake  fifteen  miles  long  which  would 
hold  back  from  75  to  20  per  cent  of  the  flood  waters.  This  project 
would  yield  15,000  horsepower  at  Mt.  Morris  and  by  equalizing  the 
flow  of  the  river  create  22,000  additional  horsepower  at  the  hydro- 
electric plants  at  Rochester.  This  lake  would  have  great  scenic 
beauty  and  would  really  be  a  pleasure  resort  supplemental  to  Letch- 
worth Park  itself,  since  it  is  planned  to  have  it  open  to  the  public 
for  boating  and  fishing. 

The  Delaware,  fully  developed,  could  yield  approximately  300,- 
000  horsepower.  Utilization  of  its  power  possibilities,  however, 
would  involve  the  rights  of  three  States  it  touches — New  York, 
Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey.  Extensive  and  expensive  storage, 
on  lands  in  New  York  State,  would  be  required.  The  Delaware  is 
being  considered  as  a  source  of  drinking  water  by  New  Jersey  and 
New  York  City.  Moreover,  utilization  of  the  river  for  power  would 
require  re-location  of  a  considerable  section  of  the  main  line  of  the 
Erie  Railroad,  which  runs  right  along  its  shore.  Complete  develop- 
ment of  the  Delaware  for  power,  therefore,  seems  unlikely  for  a 
good  many  years,  if  it  ever  proves  feasible. 


135  1 


It  is  estimated  that  approximately  150,000  horsepower  which 
might  be  developed  on  the  upper  Hudson  and  other  streams  in  the 
Adirondacks  are  tied  up  indefinitely  by  the  Constitutional  provision 
against  use  of  State  lands  for  power  purposes.  This,  however,  does 
not  accurately  measure  the  obstacle  to  comprehensive  power  de- 
velopment of  the  interior  streams  interposed  by  the  Constitutional 
provision.  A  stream  may,  for  example,  have  on  it  five  power  sites. 
Ownership  of  land  to  be  flooded  for  the  storage  reservoir  and  the 
first,  third  and  fifth  power  sites  may  be  vested  in  individuals.  The 
land  at  the  second  power  site  may  be  owned  by  the  State,  and  a 
part  of  the  land  necessary  at  the  fourth  may  be  State-owned,  the 
rest  owned  by  individuals.  The  cost  of  the  reservoir  will  be  so  large 
that  unless  all  five  power  sites  are  developed,  each  bearing  its  pro- 


A  modern  steam  station  at  Amsterdam,  used  to  balance 
water  power  in  the  interconnected  system. 


I36J 


portionate  share  of  the  cost,  development  would  be  uneconomic. 
Until  the  Constitution  is  amended  as  was  proposed,  the  State  may 
not  participate  in  such  an  undertaking,  nor  may  it  license  private 
individuals  or  corporations  to  use  its  lands  for  reservoirs,  power 
plants  or  transmission  lines.  Thus  development  of  a  considerable 
part  of  the  power  resources  of  the  interior  streams  will  be  post- 
poned until  the  Constitution  is  amended  or  until  the  demand  for 
power  is  so  great  that  the  partial  development  possible  through 
individual  ownership  is  economically  justifiable. 

There  is  much  misunderstanding  about  what  would  result  if 
all  the  projected  storage  reservoirs  in  the  Adirondacks  were  built, 
power  plants  erected  and  transmission  lines  built  to  link  them  into 
the  existing  interconnected  system.  The  argument  has  been  made 
that  the  reservoirs  would  be  unsightly  and  unhealthy  and  the 
Adirondacks  be  spoiled  as  a  pleasure  park  and  a  health  resort  for 
the  people.  Experience  with  storage  reservoirs  for  water  supply, 
flood  prevention  and  power  purposes  has  proved  this  to  be  untrue. 
Actually  a  good  deal  of  the  land  in  the  Adirondacks  which  would 
be  flooded  is  now  neither  beautiful  nor  especially  health-giving. 


Reforesting  a  hillside.    Power  companies  plant  trees  to 
protect  their  watersheds. 


137! 


Growth  of   18-year  old  Scotch  pine — result  of  electrical 
company    reforesting    along    the    Beaver    River.  Approxi- 
mately  four   million    trees    have   been    planted  by  one 
company. 


1381 


It  is  often  swampy,  full  of  stumps  of  old  trees,  a  breeding  ground 
for  mosquitoes.  Storage  reservoirs  would  make  much  of  it  more 
sightly  than  at  present,  since  the  modern  reservoir  is  a  beautiful 
lake,  covering  ground  from  which  stumps  have  been  removed  and 
with  shores  well  preserved  in  their  wild  state  or  reforested.  The 
Stillwater  Reservoir  built  by  the  Black  River  Regulating  District 
is  an  excellent  example.  It  replaced  a  rather  disreputable  lake,  its 
shores  lined  with  stumps  and  snags,  with  a  fine  body  of  clear,  deep 
water  which  has  been  stocked  with  fish.  On  its  shores  scores  of 
camp  sites  are  being  laid  out.  Thousands  of  young  evergreen  trees 
have  been  planted  around  it,  and  it  is  expected  to  be  one  of  the 
favorite  pleasure  resorts  of  that  section  of  the  North  Woods. 

A  modern  hydroelectric  plant  is  not  ugly.  Present-day  practice 
gives  much  attention  to  making  it  beautiful  and  harmonious  with 
its  surroundings.  It  is  clean,  makes  little  noise  in  operation,  and 
requires  only  a  few  men  to  operate  it.  A  high-tension  transmission 
line,  while  perhaps  not  beautiful  except  to  the  engineer,  is  not  un- 
sightly and  in  forest  country  would  seldom  be  seen,  because  it 
would  be  built  on  a  right-of-way  as  remote  as  possible  from  roads 
and  traffic.  Moreover,  instead  of  being  a  detriment  to  forest  coun- 
try, transmission  rights-of-way  have  proved  in  the  national  forests 
to  be  very  useful  as  firebreaks  and  fire  patrol  lines.  They  are  com- 
pletely cleared  of  trees  and  underbrush,  frequently  100  feet  wide, 
and  they  are  patrolled  by  utility  company  employees  regularly. 
They  form  an  important  link  in  the  chain  of  protection  against  the 
fire  menace  to  the  forests.  The  Federal  forest  policy  contemplates 
and  permits  a  reasonable  amount  of  cutting  of  trees  for  roads, 
transmission  lines,  and  power  purposes. 


f39l 


VIII  The  Necessity  for  Action 


HE  public  of  New  York  State  has  an  interest  in  having  the 
water  powers  developed  as  soon  as  it  is  possible  to  put  them 
to  work. 

Every  store,  every  factory,  every  farm,  every  home  has  an 
interest  in  the  prompt  development  of  these  water  powers.  More 
power  and  lower-priced  power  must  give  a  mighty  forward  impulse 
to  the  State's  well-being.  It-  represents  more  production,  more  pay, 
more  prosperity.  That  must  be  the  public's  first  and  greatest 
interest  in  having  the  wasted  waters  used. 

The  public's  interest  is  in  the  fact  that  such  development 
presents  possibilities  of  savings  in  the  amount  expended  annually 
for  use  of  electricity  in  New  York  State.  This  does  not  mean  that 
every  community  would  have  its  rates  lowered  or  that  every  cus- 
tomer would  receive  smaller  bills  for  the  electricity  used.  It  does 
mean  that  the  production  cost  of  the  total  amount  of  electricity 
which  will  be  used  in  New  York  State  for  many  years  to  come 
would  unquestionably  be  less  than  its  production  cost  would  be 
without  the  utilization  of  the  water  power.  And  under  public 
regulation  of  public  utilities  which  exists  in  this  State,  the  benefits 
of  this  lower  production  cost  would  be  passed  along  to  the  public  and 
the  sum  total  of  the  electric  bills  would  be  less  than  if  the  water 
powers  were  not  developed. 

This  has  already  been  demonstrated  in  that  section  of  the  State 
now  served  chiefly  by  Niagara  power.  The  public  there — not  every 
user  of  electricity,  but  the  public  as  a  whole — pays  for  its  electric 
service  a  price  less  than  the  price  in  other  parts  of  the  State.  Con- 
sidering the  fact  that  the  rates  cover  taxes  paid  to  local,  State  and 
Federal  governments,  which  amount  to  a  dime  in  each  dollar  spent 
for  electricity,  the  public  in  the  Niagara  district  gets  its  electric 
service  for  less  money  than  the  public  of  Ontario  pays  to  the 
governmentally  owned  and  operated  electric  systems  there  for 
service  from  Niagara  power. 

The  public's  interest  is  in  the  vast  saving  in  coal  which 
would  result.   America's  coal  fields  are  not  inexhaustible.   As  long 

f  401 


as  rain  falls  and  water  runs  down  hill,  the  water  powers  can  be 
used  with  no  exhaustion  of  Nature's  resources. 

Another  phase  of  the  public's  interest  in  substitution  of  the  use 
of  " white  coal"  for  black  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  would  hasten  the 
freeing  of  industry  generally  from  the  hazards  of  dependence  on 
coal.  The  coal  trade  has  been,  for  years,  and  probably  will  be  for ' 
many  years  to  come,  subject  to  interruptions  of  production  and  dis- 
tribution. Industry  is  rapidly  becoming  electrified,  but  is  not  yet 
so  generally  electrified  as  it  assuredly  will  become  with  the  avail- 
ability of  an  added  volume  of  low-priced  hydroelectricity. 

The  public's  interest  is  in  the  fact  that  a  substantial  rev- 
enue will  be  derived  from  license  fees  and  taxes  for  the  State, 
and  taxes  for  local  communities.  The  State  has  now  an  income  of 
more  than  $500,000  a  year  from  fees  and  rentals  for  water  power 
it  owns.  The  fees  from  the  new  Niagara  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
projects  would  very  greatly  increase  this,  and  would  be  obtained 
without  the  expenditure  of  one  cent  of  State  funds  or  any  risk  by 
the  State  if  licenses  for  the  projects  were  granted  to  the  applicants. 

The  power  projects  discussed  in  this  book  require  an  estimated 
investment  of  around  half  a  billion  dollars.  Every  dollar  so  invested 
will  represent  an  income  from  taxes  to  the  locality  where  the  physi- 
cal property  exists.  It  will  represent,  also,  an  income  to  the  State 
and  Federal  governments  from  the  electrical  business  it  makes 
possible.  In  1924  electrical  company  reports  to  the  Public  Service 
Commission  showed  that  they  paid  taxes  amounting  to  $16,789,162. 
Of  this  sum  approximately  810,000,000  went  to  the  local  communi- 
ties, more  than  $1,500,000  went  to  the  State,  and  the  balance  to  the 
Federal  government.  Utility  taxes  are  increasing  largely  each  year. 
Beyond  the  benefits  to  the  public  from  the  taxes  paid  by  the  com- 
panies because  of  the  huge  investment  necessary  for  the  water  power 
developments  and  the  increase  in  the  electrical  business  would  be 
others — taxes  amounting  to  many  thousands  of  dollars  a  year  paid 
by  individuals  on  the  income  derived  from  the  securities  held  by 
them  in  the  companies  making  the  developments,  and  taxes  paid  by 
businessses  locating  in  this  State  because  of  the  new  supply  of  low- 
cost  power. 

So  long  as  official  authorization  of  the  beginning  of  work  on 
these  projects  is  postponed,  waste  continues.  The  public  is  losing 
an  opportunity  to  obtain  its  supply  of  electricity  on  more  favorable 


[41  } 


terms.  The  State  is  losing  substantial  revenue  it  might  be  receiving. 
The  world  is  losing  coal  which  took  a  million  years  to  create. 


The  electrical  industry  in  New  York  State  is  ready  to  act,  if 
permitted.  It  can  produce  a  systematic,  comprehensive  develop- 
ment of  the  unused  water  powers  which  will  utilize  their  fullest 
value ;  and  it  can,  through  its  knowledge,  experience  and  personnel, 
create  markets  which  will  absorb  the  huge  volume  of  power 
produced. 


142  1 


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